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A new report from the United States Census Bureau presents data on death rates during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The data shows that in 2019 before the onset of the pandemic, 351,097 African Americans died. In 2020, when the pandemic took hold, 456,491 African Americans died. This was an increase of 29.7 percent.
In contrast, the number of deaths for the population as a whole increased by 18.5 percent from 2019 to 2020. The number of death for White Americans increased by 16.4 percent. The number of death among Hispanic Americans rose by a whopping 44 percent. During the pandemic’s first year, every race group other than the White population experienced single-year percentage increases higher than the 18.5 percent increase in deaths for the total population.
In 2021, when vaccines became widely available, the number of Black deaths remained very similar to 2020 but the number of deaths among White Americans rose 2.7 percent. In 2022, the number of deaths for Blacks and Whites declined.
Many studies have shown that Black schoolchildren are far more likely than their White peers to be disciplined at school. But a new study published by the American Educational Research Association, finds that 5 percent of teachers most likely to refer students to the principal’s office for disciplinary action do so at such an outsized rate that they effectively double the racial gaps in such referrals.
The study was conducted by Jing Liu and Wenjing Gao of the University of Maryland, College Park and Emily K. Penner at the University of California, Irvine.
Office discipline referrals (ODRs) are typically the first formal step in the discipline process and precede the potential use of further formal consequences, including suspension. Researchers found that the top 5 percent of referring teachers issued an average of over 48 ODRs per year—roughly one ODR every four school days. That is several times greater than the rates of their average-referring colleagues, who issued less than one ODR for every two months of school. This 5 percent of teachers accounted for 34.8 percent of all ODRs. The ratio of the Black-White gap in ODRs was about 1.6-to-1 when considering all referrers but jumped to 3.4-to-1 when including top referrers.
The results suggest that teachers who are White, early career, and who serve middle schools are most likely to engage in extensive referring. As teachers accumulate more years of teaching experience, especially after three years, their likelihood of being a referrer or top referrer quickly drops.
“Given that top referrers tend to be teachers early in their careers, targeting professional development supports of classroom management skills for this group of teachers might also be a viable approach to reducing their referring frequency,” said Jing Liu the lead author of the study. “Our analysis highlights that structural supports at certain school levels are warranted.”
The full study, “Troublemakers? The Role of Frequent Teacher Referrers in Expanding Racial Disciplinary Disproportionalities,” was published on the website of the journal Educational Researcher. It may be accessed here.
A new study led by Maura L. Scott, the Dr. Persis E. and Dr. Charles E. Rockwood Eminent Scholar in Marketing in the College of Business at Florida State University, finds that Black entrepreneurs are still severely discriminated against by banks, even when they are more qualified than their White peers.
The study found that potential Black borrowers received lower-quality service than their White peers when applying for financing. This included being offered fewer loan options. The study also found that Black borrowers were treated less warmly by bank personnel than White customers.
The researchers found that when Black customers signal higher socioeconomic status, or a Black customer’s company (for which they seek the loan) has a more complex and sophisticated legal structure they are more likely to receive funding than Blacks who are sole proprietors. The results show that a more sophisticated business structure increases the employee’s trust toward Black customers, which reduces the perceived default likelihood and increases the likelihood to offer a loan. However, this difference is not the case for White applicants.
Professor Scott is the joint editor-in-chief of the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. She holds bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, and a Ph.D. from Arizona State University.
The full study, “Revealing and Mitigating Racial Bias and Discrimination in Financial Services,” was published on the website of the Journal of Marketing Research. It may be accessed here.
A new survey by the Gallup Organization for the Lumina Foundation finds that 21 percent of all Black students currently enrolled in U.S. higher education say they feel discriminated against “frequently” or “occasionally” in their program. Black students are not only more likely to say they frequently or occasionally feel discriminated against but also to say they feel disrespected and physically or psychologically unsafe.
The survey found that Black learners are more likely to feel discriminated against at institutions with the least racially diverse student bodies. Nearly one third of the Black students at the least diverse colleges and universities said they experienced discrimination compared to 17 percent of Black students at the institutions with the most diverse student bodies. Some 28 percent of Black students at the least diverse campuses said they felt physically unsafe compared to 16 percent of Black students at the most diverse institutions.
More than one third of Black students at private, for-profit educational institutions reported that they feel discriminated against “frequently” or “occasionally.”At private, not-for-profit educational institutions, 23 percent of Black students faced frequent or occasional discrimination. Only 16 percent of Black students at state-operated educational institutions were discriminated against frequently or occasionally.
The authors of the report conclude that “students’ experiences with discrimination may in some cases suggest a need for greater regulatory oversight; for example, some advocacy organizations have called for greater accountability measures that prevent for-profit colleges from targeting minority communities with inferior program qualities and predatory lending practices.”
The full report, Balancing Act: The Tradeoffs and Challenges Facing Black Students in Higher Education, may be downloaded here.
Early diagnosis of uterine cancer is known to improve a patient’s chances for survival. When diagnosed while the cancer is still confined to the uterus, nearly 95 percent of patients will survive for at least five years. But that rate drops to less than 70 percent once the cancer has spread to areas or lymph nodes nearby and plummets to around 18 percent once the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
Previous research has found that Black patients are less likely to receive early diagnoses than people of other racial and ethnic groups. A new analysis by Yale researchers provides insights into why that is: They found that Black patients were more likely than their White counterparts to experience testing delays or to not receive recommended tests at all.
For their analysis, researchers included adult patients who had reported abnormal uterine bleeding to their healthcare providers and later received a diagnosis of uterine cancer. Abnormal uterine bleeding is the most common symptom of uterine cancer. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends several procedures to evaluate the cause of abnormal uterine bleeding, such as endometrial biopsy, transvaginal/pelvic ultrasound, and hysteroscopy, in which a physician examines the inside of the cervix and uterus with a small, telescope-like device. In the new study, researchers found that more than twice as many Black patients than White patients did not receive any of these procedures.
Further, of the patients who did receive procedures, Black patients were more likely than White patients to experience a delay of more than two months in receiving their first diagnostic procedure following their report of abnormal uterine bleeding. Ultimately, Black patients were more likely than White patients to experience a delay in receiving their cancer diagnosis. The researchers found that 11.3 percent of Black patients who had reported abnormal uterine bleeding waited more than a year to receive a uterine cancer diagnosis, compared with 8.3 percent of White patients.
The full study, “Racial Disparities in Diagnostic Evaluation of Uterine Cancer among Medicaid Beneficiaries,” was published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute. It may be accessed here.
A new survey by the Pew Research Center documents how African Americans feel about the feminist movement. Nearly four out of every five Black adults agree that “it is very important for women to have equal rights with men.” Nearly 9 of every 10 Black adults with a college education agree that it is important to have equal rights for men and women
More than three quarters of Black adults agree that “the feminist movement has done a great deal or a fair amount to advance women’s rights.” But less than half of Black adults agree that the feminist movement has helped Black women. Black men are more likely than Black women to believe that the feminist movement has helped Black women. Among college-educated Black adults, 61 percent believe that the feminist movement has helped Black women. Only 45 percent of Black adults with only a high school education agree.
More than a quarter of all Black adults believe that the feminist movement has actually “hurt Black women.” And Black women are more likely than Black men to agree.
Some 42 percent of Black adults say feminism has helped White women a lot. Only 16 percent of Black adults agree that feminism has helped Black women a lot.
New data from the U.S. Census Bureau shows large racial gaps in educational attainment in 2022. That year, 27.6 percent of African Americans over the age of 25 had obtained at least a bachelor’s degree. For non-Hispanic Whites, the figure was 48.2 percent.
Some 10.1 percent of Black adults held a graduate or professional degree compared to 15.7 percent of non-Hispanic Whites.
On the other extreme, nearly one in 10 African American adults had not graduated from high school. Only 4.8 percent of non-Hispanic White adults did not have a high school diploma.
When we break the figures down by gender, we see a major advantage for Black women. In 2022, 30.1 percent of Black women had obtained at least a bachelor’s degree and 12.3 percent had earned an advanced degree. For African American men, 24.6 percent had a least a bachelor’s degree and 8.3 percent had an advanced degree.
A new survey by the Gallup Organization for the Lumina Foundation finds that more than one in three Black bachelor’s degree students in the U.S. have major life responsibilities beyond their coursework, twice the rate for all other bachelor’s degree students. These additional duties beyond their college studies may be a significant factor in the Black-White college graduation rate gap.
About 22 percent of African American college students provide care to children, friends, seniors, or other relatives. One out of every five African American college students also has a full-time job. Both of these are about double the rate for bachelor’s degree students as a whole.
Nearly half of Black bachelor’s degree students with competing responsibilities say they have considered stopping their coursework in the past six months. This well exceeds the one third of Black students without such obligations who have contemplated pausing their studies.
The report concludes that “strategies for helping students stay enrolled while fulfilling other responsibilities may require schools to develop best practices in integrating flexibility for time and location of courses. Providing comprehensive student support services has proven to be effective in helping students with external priorities stay enrolled and succeed. These may range from on-campus child care access to advising that helps students manage scheduling and resource challenges, as well as counseling services to provide strategies for coping with the stress they may experience balancing multiple priorities.”
The full report, Balancing Act: The Tradeoffs and Challenges Facing Black Students in Higher Education, may be downloaded here.
Racial discrimination was found to be a significant force behind higher levels of depression among college-educated Black Americans, finds a new study from the Brown School at Washington University in St. Louis.
“Our results indicate that there is an alarming level of depression among upwardly mobile — which we define as college-educated — Black Americans,” said Darrell Hudson, an associate professor and lead author of the study.
Dr. Hudson and his colleagues surveyed a large group of African Americans who were 24 years or older and had earned at least a four-year college degree. Nearly 40 percent of the sample reported symptoms that were indicative of significant depressive symptoms. Additionally, 15.5 percent of the sample reported that they had been diagnosed with depression by a health care provider at some point in their lives.
Exposure to discrimination was assessed by major and everyday discrimination scales. Respondents were asked about restaurant service, name calling, threats, hiring and firing practices, being stopped by police, etc. The findings indicated that there is a significant association between everyday discrimination and depressive symptoms. Everyday discrimination alone accounted for 22 percent of the variance in depressive symptoms.
Dr. Hudson joined the faculty at Washington University in 2011. He is a graduate of Morehouse College in Atlanta, where he majored in psychology. He holds a master of public health degree and a Ph.D. in health behavior and health education from the University of Michigan.
The full study, “Understanding the Impact of Contemporary Racism on the Mental Health of Middle-Class Black Americans,” was published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. It may be accessed here.
A new study led by fellows at the Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics at the University of Pennsylvania used text messaged-based surveys to assess patient emergency department experience, including the impact of race. The surveys found that one of every 10 Black patients at emergency rooms believed that their race impacted the quality of care that they received.
Black patients reported that race most heavily affected the quality of care, respect, and communication. More than a quarter of Black patients reported race highly impacting being treated with respect and 22.4 percent reported a high impact on quality of service.
Anish Agarwal, an assistant professor of emergency medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and the lead author of the study notes that “Inequity — specifically across race — has led to significant disparities in patient care and outcomes that persist in health care. We need to find ways to measure experiences of racism and address it. Dismantling structural racism across society, and within health care, requires specific attention. We currently do not have ways to directly address or even investigate this critical aspect of health care. Our study shines light on the nuanced challenges of asking necessary, direct questions related to racism using patient-experience surveys.”
The full study, “Assessing Experiences of Racism among Black and White Patients in the Emergency Department,” was published on the website of the Journal of the American College of Emergency Physicians. It may be accessed here.
A study by researchers at Michigan State University found that between 1997 and 2019, 4,918 doctoral degrees were awarded by U.S. universities in the discipline of geography. Only 86 of these doctorates, or 1.64 percent, were awarded to African Americans. In no year between 1997 and 2019 did the number of African Americans earning a doctorate in geography exceed nine. In five of these years, there were either zero or one African American who was awarded a doctorate in geography.
The study found nine research universities that combined did not award one doctorate in geography to any nonwhite student during the entire period. Overall, they awarded 200 doctorates in geography during the 22-year period.
The authors found that the differential awarding of degrees was related to the differential funding by race to support the completion of doctoral degrees. Financial support for Black graduate students in the field is lacking, according to the authors.
Researchers recommend that graduate programs in geography follow a model adopted at Michigan State where at least one nonwhite student is recruited and financially supported each year. To demonstrate that the policy works, in the three years before the policy was passed (2015- 2017), there were three Blacks, two Latinx, and one Native American admitted and funded by the department. Three years after the policy was passed (2018–2020), there were 10 Blacks, three Latinx, and one Native American who were admitted and funded.
The authors believe that this approach can be successfully adapted and applied to other geography departments in the U.S. and that through such actions, racial inequity and differential treatment experienced by nonwhite American citizens in geography doctoral programs may be reduced, if not entirely eliminated.
The full study, “Assessing Changes in the Underrepresentation of Blacks, Latinx/Hispanics, and Native American Doctoral Students in U.S. Geography Programs, and a Model for Change: the Michigan State University Model.” was published on the website of the journal SN Social Sciences. It may be accessed here.
A new study led by researchers affiliated with Harvard University finds that older Black patients with advanced cancer are less likely than White patients to receive opioid medications for pain relief in the last weeks of life.
Researchers examined opioid prescription orders for 318,549 Medicare patients over the age of 65 who had poor-prognosis cancers and were nearing the end of life. Between 2007 and 2019, the group experienced a steady decline in access to opioids and a rapid expansion of urine drug screening. Within these broader trends, researchers found small but meaningful divergences between racial and ethnic groups.
Compared with White patients, Black patients were 4.3 percentage points less likely to receive any opioid and 3.2 percentage points less likely to receive long-acting opioids near the end of life. Researchers also found that when Black patients received opioids, they tended to receive lower doses.
The inequities were particularly stark for Black men. “We found that Black men were far less likely to be prescribed reasonable doses than White men were,” said the study’s senior author, Alexi Wright, a gynecologic oncologist and an associate professor at Harvard Medical School. “And Black men were less likely to receive long-acting opioids, which are essential for many patients dying of cancer. Our findings are startling because everyone should agree that cancer patients should have equal access to pain relief at the end of life.”
The full study, “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Opioid Access and Urine Drug Screening Among Older Patients With Poor-Prognosis Cancer Near the End of Life,” was published on the website of the Journal of Clinical Oncology. It may be accessed here.
At least 17 states have prohibited the teaching of certain topics relating to race or gender in K-12 classrooms. Most of these states are in the South or the upper Midwest.
A new study by the Rand Corporation examines teachers’ awareness of and responses to limitations on how they can address race- or gender-related topics in their instruction. The authors found that teachers experienced limitations that infringed on their instructional autonomy, which included their choice of curriculum materials and topics for classroom discussion. These limitations originated from a variety of sources, including state, school, and district leaders and family and community members, and encompassed a wide span of topics, including, but not limited to race- or gender-related topics.
Roughly one-quarter of teachers reported not knowing whether they were subject to restrictions on how they can address topics related to race or gender, and only 30 percent of teachers in states with restrictions reported them as being in place. About one-quarter of teachers reported that limitations placed on how teachers can address topics related to race or gender have influenced their choice of curriculum materials or instructional practices.
The report offers several recommendations including:
* State and district leaders should collaborate with teachers when crafting local policies and guidance.
* School and district leaders should provide teachers with the appropriate guidance, resources, and supports to address contentious topics in the classroom and message their support for teachers.
* School and district leaders and educators should strive to engage families in productive conversations about race and gender.
* School, district, and state leaders should tie potentially contentious topics to concrete learning objectives and emphasize their educational benefits for students.
The full report, Walking on Eggshells — Teachers’ Responses to Classroom Limitations on Race- or Gender-Related Topics, may be viewed here.
A new report from the Brookings Institution examines the progress African Americans have made in doctoral degree awards. Only about 2 percent of American adults hold a doctorate degree but the reports says that “the racial composition of those earning doctorates looks very different from the racial composition of the general population, raising questions of whether the benefits of racial representation in doctorate-level professions can be realized.”
In 1980, Black doctoral earners received about 40 percent of the doctorates they would have received if the percentage of doctorates equaled the Black percentage of the population. There has been significant improvement in the share of doctorates awarded to Black people, now at about four-fifths of what racial parity would call for.
The report asks: “How long will it take for URM groups to reach parity, given historical rates of improvement? As a rough calculation, the Black share rose from 43 percent to 79 percent in 39 years — a rate of almost 1 percentage point a year — with a remaining gap of 21 percentage points. Thus, if we assume similar trends in doctoral attainment and in demographic growth in the coming years, the answer is another 22 years for Black doctorates.”
But the overall figures hide the fact that Black research doctorates are much less likely to be in STEM fields than is true for other groups. And Black research doctorates are disproportionately in the field of education.
The report urges greater efforts to get Black undergraduates involved in research activities and for universities to offer greater financial aid for students from low-income families.
“The representation of underrepresented minority groups at the doctoral level has improved — indeed, it has improved substantially” the report concludes. “However, representation remains well below parity in the population and there seems to be little reason to believe ‘benign neglect’ will resolve the issue. Regardless of any future Supreme Court decisions, affirmative steps to attract underrepresented groups into programs at the highest levels of education — especially in STEM areas — continue to be needed.”
In late December, Ron DeSantis, the newly re-elected governor of Florida and probable candidate for the Republican Party’s nomination for president of the United States in 2024, notified all state-operated universities in Florida that they are required to “provide a comprehensive list of all staff, programs, and campus activities related to diversity, equity and inclusion and critical race theory.” The universities were told to provide information on the “costs associated with the administration of each program or activity,” including a description of the activities, paid positions, and percentage of the operating costs that are provided by state funds.
The 12 state-operated universities have reported that $34.5 million in their combined budgets are related to diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts. Nearly $21 million of this total is from state funds with the remainder coming from the federal government, nonprofits, or private sources.
The University of South Florida said it has $8.7 million in its budget earmarked for diversity programs, the most of any of the 12 state universities. The University of Florida budgeted $5.3 million and Florida State University allocated $2.45 million for diversity initiatives.
Historically Black Florida A&M University had $4.4 million in diversity-related expenses, mostly coming from state funds. The largest allocations were for staffing and programs at the Center for Environmental Equity and Justice and the Institute of Public Health.
Armed with this new information, it is unclear what steps, if any, Governor DeSantis will take to curtail these programs. However, in speech at a state Board of Governors meeting at Florida International University in Miami on January 24, Jeanette Nuñez, the lieutenant governor of Florida, said “I believe [the colleges are] looking at ways to curb those initiatives, and I think we’ll look at ways to more broadly curb those initiatives as well.”
A new study from the Pew Research Center examines what Black Americans say is needed to overcome racial inequality in the United States. More than six-in-ten Black adults (63 percent) say voting is an extremely or very effective strategy for Black progress. Black Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents are more likely than Black Republicans and Republican leaners to say voting is an extremely or very effective tactic for Black progress (68 percent vs. 46 percent).
However, only 42 percent of African Americans say protesting is a potent strategy for Black progress. Democrats are more likely than their Republican peers to believe protesting can help achieve Black progress. Older Blacks are more likely than young African Americans to favor protesting.
A majority of African Americans say that supporting Black businesses can help achieve racial equality. Nearly 40 percent of Black adults say having all businesses in Black neighborhoods be owned by Black people would be an extremely or very effective strategy. Smaller shares say the same about establishing a national Black political party (31 percent) and having all the elected officials governing Black neighborhoods be Black (27 percent).
Over the past several years, 39 percent of African Americans believe the Black Lives Matter movement has done the most to move the nation toward great equality. Some 17 percent say the NCAAP has done the most and 13 percent say Black churches and religious organizations. Only 6 percent of African Americans adults think the Congressional Black Caucus has done the most for racial equality.
A majority of African American adults agree that the prison system needs to be “completely overhauled” in order to achieve racial equality. Another 33 percent of Black adults say that major changes are needed in prison reform. Only 11 percent of African American adults say no or only minor changes are needed.
A new study led by Louisa W. Holaday, an assistant professor of internal medicine at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York City, examines student loan debt among medical residents by race.
Researchers used 2014–19 data on more than 120,000 postgraduate resident trainees obtained from the Association of American Medical Colleges. Slightly more than 5 percent of those surveyed were Black. Three types of debt were examined loans for premedical education, loans for medical education, and non-educational consumer debt.
The results showed that 95.5 percent of all Black medical residents had some type of debt. Black medical residents were more likely to have debt than those from any other racial or ethnic group. Nearly 90 percent of all Black medical residents had accumulated debt from their medical training. A majority of Black residents (59.9 percent) had debt from premedical education loans. More than half of all Black medical residents also had accumulated consumer debt.
For Black medical residents with undergraduate debt, the median amount owed was $25,000. For those with debt from their medical training, the median amount of debt was $180,000.
The authors explain that “high rates of debt may contribute to higher attrition among trainees and faculty members from populations underrepresented in medicine. Debt is a source of stress, which compounds other sources of stress more common among such trainees and faculty members. Trainees and physicians from populations underrepresented in medicine are more likely to report microaggressions and social isolation, as well as mistreatment such as public humiliation. Further, they experience bias in performance evaluations, funding, awards, and promotions. Thus, addressing debt may reduce one important source of stress for trainees and physicians from populations underrepresented in medicine and contribute to increasing both diversity and inclusion for physicians from these populations.”
The full study, “Differences In Debt Among Postgraduate Medical Residents By Self-Designated Race And Ethnicity, 2014–19,” was published in the journal Health Affairs. It may be accessed here.
The 118th Congress is the most diverse in American history. Of the 535 members of the Senate and the House of Representatives, 133 are Black, Hispanic, Asian American, American Indian, or Alaska Native. Of these 133 legislators, about 80 percent are Democrats. Blacks are now 13 percent of all legislators, roughly equal to the Black percentage of the U.S. population.
A new report from the Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies finds that despite greater diversity of the members of the House and Senate, this diversity is not reflected in high-level staff positions. There are 1,599 top positions (chiefs of staff, legislative directors, and communications directors) in the personal offices of members of the 118th Congress. As of January 6, 2023, 1,414 of these 1,599 positions had been filled.
Of the top staff hired by new members so far, 16.3 percent are people of color, and 4.4 percent are African American. (People of color account for 40.0 percent of the U.S. population and African Americans are 12.4 percent.)
Of the 1,021 top staff positions filled by returning House members, 18.4 percent are people of color. Of the 258 top staff positions filled by returning Senate members, 15.9 percent are people of color.
LaShonda Brenson, senior and lead researcher on the midterm hiring campaign at the Joint Center, stated that “it’s imperative that the newly-elected and returning members of Congress fill the remaining open top staff positions with diverse staffers because they bring a perspective that’s more representative of their constituents that can be used to dismantle the structural inequality in laws passed by Congress.”
A group of 33 highly selective liberal arts colleges filed an amici curiae brief with the United States Supreme Court urging that the tribunal uphold its 1996 ruling in the Grutter case that allowed “narrowly-tailored” considerations of race in the college admission process.
The college told the Court that “each year, Amici decide which set of applicants, considered individually and collectively, will take fullest advantage of what the college has to offer, contribute most to the educational process, and use what they have learned for the benefit of society. Studies consistently show that diversity — including racial diversity — meaningfully improves learning experiences, complex thinking, and non-cognitive abilities. Diversity also generates pedagogical innovations and decreases prejudice. These benefits are especially pronounced at liberal arts colleges and small universities, where smaller class sizes lead to greater engagement among diverse students.”
The liberal arts institutions told the Court that if they were no longer able to consider race in their admissions decisions, there would be a dramatic drop in the diversity of their student bodies. The schools estimate that Black enrollments would likely decline between 50 percent and 70 percent. The percentage of Black student applicants who were offered admission would be about half the rate for White applicants. Most strikingly, the percentage of Black students matriculating at these liberal arts institutions as a whole would drop from 7 percent to 2 percent. The JBHE Annual Survey of Black first-year students in the Class of 2025 showed that 11 colleges that were part of the amici had an entering class that was at least 9 percent Black. At Amherst College, Haverford College, Swarthmore College, Pomona College, and Barnard College, Blacks were at least 13 percent of the entering classes.
The colleges conclude in their brief that “the consideration of race in admissions as part of a holistic, individualized assessment produces multiple tangible benefits, which would otherwise be unattainable.” Strictly enforced, a “do not consider race” policy would “presumably take Black enrollments back to early 1960s levels before colleges and universities began to make serious efforts to recruit minority students.
The liberal arts colleges that signed on to the brief are Amherst, Barnard, Bates, Bowdoin, Bryn Mawr, Carleton, Colby, Connecticut, Davidson, Franklin & Marshall, Hamilton, Hampshire, Haverford, Macalester, Middlebury, Mount Holyoke, Oberlin, Pomona, Reed, Sarah Lawrence, Smith, St. Olaf, Swarthmore, Trinity, Union, Vassar, Wellesley, and Williams. They were joined by Bucknell University, Clark University, Tufts University, Washington and Lee University, and Wesleyan University.
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