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Finland was recently named the happiest country in the world for the sixth year running. A range of theories have been put forward to explain why the Nordic nation continues to rank at the top of the table for happiness, from greater income equality to time spent in nature.
But one Finnish sociology professor credited the country’s position to “a cultural orientation that sets realistic limits to one’s expectations for a good life”. That is, he seems to believe Finnish people are happy because they don’t set their expectations too high.
So should we all lower our expectations to be happier? I would argue psychology research suggests the opposite.
Read more: Why Finland is the happiest country in the world – an expert explains
High expectations are important because they allow us to dream and create goals to work towards. Through a process called mental contrasting, we create judgements about our expectations of the future and decide which dreams are realistic to pursue and which ones we should let go.
For example, you may imagine yourself living a life with many friends around you. If you’re sitting alone at home dreaming about this and feeling sad about the reality of being lonely, mental contrasting helps you identify your dream, anticipate potential obstacles, plan to take action to overcome them and pursue a goal that will help you make friends, such as joining a club. So high expectations, when realistic, can serve as a motivating force to make a change.
High expectations also keep us optimistic, so that we keep going in the face of adversity. When a bad thing happens to someone and they develop an expectation that everything will work out well – despite the adversity and even if it seems unrealistic at the time – this can lead them to take positive steps forward.
For example, your expectation of finding a lifelong partner may diminish when your relationship breaks up. However, if you continue to have high expectations that you’ll meet the right person, you’re more likely to join a dating site and seek opportunities to meet new people.
Low expectations limit our capacity to develop and grow. Having low expectations that we’ll accomplish what we hope to is not a good way to adapt to changes in life, and can lead to feelings of helplessness and despair.
When we have low expectations of success following adversity, we’re more likely to give up, for example not bother trying a dating app. Even when our chances of success are objectively high, we will forego opportunities – perhaps to meet new people – due to our low expectations that things will work out well for us.
So, having high expectations can help us adapt to changing circumstances and keep going. It’s a sign of resilience, adaptability and wellbeing.
While it’s useful to set high expectations for ourselves, we also tend to perform better when other people have high expectations of us. This is called the Pygmalion effect.
Our belief that others see us as capable and believe that we can accomplish more than we think we can pushes us to perform better. Likewise, when others have low expectations of us, we generally perform worse.
The Pygmalion effect has been tested extensively in the workplace and education, showing similar results.
Setting expectations too high can have negative effects. Imagine you overestimated your skills and challenged yourself too much. Perhaps you started to play Candy Crush on your partner’s phone and their level is way ahead of yours. The mismatch of your skills and this challenge may lead to frustration and even anxiety.
To neutralise this, all you need to do is go back to a level better matched to your skill level – which you find challenging but at which you’re capable of achieving high scores to progress in the game. We tend to do the same in real life to keep the equilibrium.
For example, say you’re organising a dinner party for your friends. If you commit to cooking a sophisticated meal that’s too challenging, your anxiety may reach such high levels that you can’t enjoy your own dinner party. Instead, you could lower your expectations and prepare a meal that doesn’t require as much skill, but still challenges you (and that your friends will no doubt still enjoy).
We all have longings, a desire for an ideal version of our lives. Some of our longings become goals (for example, becoming a parent), and others become a lifelong desire that will likely never come true (for example, winning the X Factor).
One of the reasons people may not want to have high expectations is because they want to protect themselves from disappointment when their hopes are not realised, which is a valid concern. However, learning to manage our emotions when sadness and frustration kick in helps us cope more effectively with adversity.
The pros of high expectations in motivating us to set and achieve goals outweigh the cons, and any “protection” we might get from low expectations. Considering all this, I think it’s too simplistic to believe Finns are happier for this reason.
Jolanta Burke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
If you hate Mondays, you’re most certainly in good company. After a couple of days off, many of us have difficulty settling back into our routines and work duties. You may even have dread and anxiety that seeps into the weekend in the form of “Sunday scaries”.
You can’t always change your schedule or obligations to make Mondays more appealing, but you may be able to “reprogram” your brain to think about the week differently.
Our brains love predictability and routine. Research has shown that lack of routine is associated with decline in wellbeing and psychological distress. Even though the weekend heralds a leisurely and pleasant time, our brain works hard to adjust to this sudden change to a routine.
This article is part of Quarter Life, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.
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The good news is that the brain does not need to make too much effort when adjusting to the weekend’s freedom and lack of routine. However, it’s a different story when coming back to the less pleasant activities, such as a to-do list on Monday morning.
One way to adjust to post-weekend change is introducing routines that last the whole week and have the power to make our lives more meaningful. These may include watching your favourite TV programme, gardening or going to the gym. It is helpful to do these things at the same time every day.
Routines improve our sense of coherence, a process that allows us to make sense of the jigsaw of life events. When we have an established routine, be it the routine of working five days and taking two days off or engaging in a set of actions every day, our lives become more meaningful.
Another important routine to establish is your sleep routine. Research shows that keeping consistent sleep time may be as important for enjoying Mondays as how long your sleep lasts or its quality.
Changes in sleep patterns during weekends trigger social jetlag. For instance, sleeping in later than usual and for longer on free days may trigger a discrepancy between your body clock and socially-imposed responsibilities. This is linked to higher stress levels on Monday morning.
Try to keep a set time for going to bed and waking up, avoid naps. You might also want to create a 30 minute “wind-down” routine before sleep, by turning off or putting away your digital devices and practising relaxation techniques.
Hormones can also play a role in how we feel about Mondays. For instance, cortisol is a very important multifunction hormone. It helps our bodies to control our metabolism, regulate our sleep-wake cycle and our response to stress, among other things. It is usually released about an hour before we wake up (it helps us feel awake) and then its levels lower until the next morning, unless we’re under stress.
Under acute stress, our bodies release not only cortisol, but also adrenaline in preparation for fight or flight. This is when the heart beats fast, we get sweaty palms and may react impulsively. This is our amygdala (a small almond-shaped area in the base of our brains) hijacking our brains. It creates a super fast emotional response to stress even before our brains can process and think whether it was needed.
But as soon we can think – activating the brain’s prefrontal cortex, the area for our reason and executive thinking – this response will be mitigated, if there is no real threat. It is a constant battle between our emotions and reason. This might wake us up in the middle of the night when we’re too stressed or anxious.
It shouldn’t be surprising then that cortisol levels, measured in saliva samples of full-time working individuals, tend to be higher on Mondays and Tuesdays, with the lowest levels reported on Sundays.
As a stress hormone, cortisol fluctuates daily, but not consistently. On weekdays, as soon as we wake up, cortisol levels soar and variations tend to be higher than on weekends.
To combat this, we need to trick the amygdala by training the brain to only recognise actual threats. In other words, we need to activate our prefrontal cortex as fast as possible.
One of the best ways to achieve this and lower overall stress is through relaxation activities, especially on Mondays. One possibility is mindfulness, which is associated with a reduction in cortisol. Spending time in nature is another method – going outside first thing on Monday or even during your lunch hour can make a significant difference to how you perceive the beginning of the week.
Give yourself time before checking your phone, social media and the news. It’s good to wait for cortisol peak to decrease naturally, which happens approximately one hour after waking up, before you expose yourself to external stressors.
By following these simple tips, you can train your brain to believe that the weekdays can be (nearly) as good as the weekend.
Cristina receives funding from CURE Epilepsy, Irish Research Council and Epilepsy Ireland. She is Funded Investigator within FutureNeuro the Science Foundation Ireland Research Centre for Chronic and Rare Neurological Diseases.
Jolanta Burke does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
In 2022, 442 Irish doctors were issued with temporary work visas for Australia. This is a significant number of doctors compared with the total that Ireland trains each year (725 graduated in 2021).
Ireland has a long history of doctor emigration. UK research estimated that 71% of Ireland’s medical graduates of 1950-66 had emigrated by 1969. There was little interest in measuring doctor emigration back then, and little has changed in the past half a century.
Disinterest in doctor emigration stems from the belief that emigrant doctors will return and that doctor emigration will benefit Ireland.
Although emigrant doctors who returned with skills and experience obtained abroad have greatly enhanced Ireland’s medical training capacity, it is also important to acknowledge that doctor emigration without return has drained medical talent from the Irish health system.
Ireland has focused on the positive effect of doctor emigration and this has led to the development of a culture of medical migration. Although not unique to Ireland, such a culture accepts international training as inherently superior and requires doctors to complete additional training abroad (in the form of a fellowship) to further their careers. This means that in many specialities in Ireland, emigration is essential rather than optional.
When Ireland entered recession in 2008-09, the rate of doctor emigration increased, Australia emerged as a key destination, and doctors also began to emigrate earlier in their careers.
To better understand doctor emigration from Ireland, I began to study it.
In a survey of 307 emigrant doctors in 2014, I found that many had emigrated to escape difficult working conditions in the Irish health system. Emigrant doctors were enjoying the opportunity to work abroad in better-resourced health systems with superior working conditions. This both vindicated their emigration decisions and complicated their plans for return. As one doctor put it: “It’s awful to feel exiled from your country because of the expectations and work conditions of your job.”
Among those doctors surveyed, only one in four intended to return to Ireland. And the decision to return was for personal rather than professional reasons – for instance, to be closer to family and friends.
In 2018, I interviewed 40 Irish hospital doctors who had moved to Australia in the previous decade to find out why they had emigrated and whether they planned to return.
Unsustainable ways of working in Ireland also led them to decide to emigrate. They described Irish hospitals as understaffed and overstretched workplaces within which extreme ways of working had become normal.
In contrast, they enjoyed working in the Australian health system, describing well-staffed hospitals in which they were supported in their roles. Many had rediscovered their love of medicine while working in an efficient, well-resourced health system in Australia.
Once again, only a minority of those interviewed (one in three) planned to return to Ireland, indicating the risk of non-return inherent in all emigration decisions.
However, this research was undertaken before COVID. Perhaps the pandemic changed the dynamics of doctor emigration.
Initially, the pandemic seemed to change everything when hundreds of Irish emigrant doctors returned to Ireland at short notice in March 2020 in response to a government recruitment campaign.
However, interviews with 31 hospital doctors later that year revealed that the pandemic had not radically altered patterns of doctor emigration because the underlying reasons for emigration remained unchanged – that is, a culture of medical migration, poor working conditions, and a lack of employment opportunities for those who had completed postgraduate medical training.
The graph below shows that the rate of doctor emigration from Ireland to Australia increased throughout the pandemic.
Irish doctors issued with temporary work visas for Australia, 2008-22
Doctor emigration on this scale has implications for the Irish health system.
Ireland continues to rely heavily on migrant doctors to deliver healthcare – 43% of doctors on the Irish medical register are internationally trained. While this migration greatly benefits the Irish health system, it is out of sync with the WHO Global Code, a voluntary code that encourages member states to reduce their reliance on international recruitment by training and retaining enough health workers.
Ireland also has a significant number of vacancies at consultant level, perhaps indicating that traditional patterns of emigration followed by a return into a consultant post have changed in recent years.
To strengthen its health system after the pandemic and implement planned healthcare reforms, Ireland needs to strengthen its medical workforce. It is hard to see how largescale doctor emigration will contribute to this goal.
The Irish health system needs to better understand the dynamics of doctor emigration. This requires up-to-date data on the dynamics of doctor emigration and return. While policymakers have begun to analyse data on doctor return, more remains to be done. (New Zealand’s medical retention data is the gold standard in this regard.)
We also need to listen to doctors to understand why they are emigrating and what might encourage or discourage their return. When doctors voice their concerns, particularly about their working conditions, the onus is on the Irish health system to listen and respond.
Only when the dynamics of doctor emigration are understood will it be possible to develop solutions to promote doctor retention and encourage the return of those doctors who have already left.
Niamh Humphries receives funding from the Health Research Board.
While you may need to modify your exercise routine slightly during pregnancy, physical activity is safe, and in fact recommended, when you’re expecting a baby.
One option you might consider is prenatal yoga. Yoga is suitable even for women who don’t tend to do a lot of exercise.
Yoga is an ancient practice from India involving movement, meditation and breathing techniques to promote mental and physical wellbeing. There’s a growing body of research on the benefits of yoga during pregnancy.
This article is part of Quarter Life, a series about issues affecting those of us in our twenties and thirties. From the challenges of beginning a career and taking care of our mental health, to the excitement of starting a family, adopting a pet or just making friends as an adult. The articles in this series explore the questions and bring answers as we navigate this turbulent period of life.
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Prenatal yoga is safe for mother and baby when practised under guidance from a certified instructor, and is suitable for both low- and high-risk pregnancies. Here are six reasons you should include prenatal yoga in your pregnancy routine.
Are you anxious about your pregnancy? Does thinking of childbirth give rise to a sense of fear? If so, you’re not alone. It’s estimated that one in five pregnant and postpartum women experience some form of anxiety.
High levels of stress and anxiety during pregnancy can increase the risk of preterm birth, longer labour, and the need for interventions including induction, sedation and caesarean section.
Yoga can help reduce anxiety and stress levels. Even a single session of prenatal yoga has been found to reduce anxiety around childbirth in low-risk mothers. And for pregnant women with diagnosed depression, yoga has been shown to reduce depressive symptoms and anxiety.
Many mothers also worry about whether they will be able to bond with their babies. By improving mental wellbeing and building a greater sense of connection with the body, yoga has been shown to increase a mother’s feeling of attachment to her unborn child.
It’s common for pregnant women to have pain around the pelvic area (lower back, hips and thighs). One study found a short course of ten yoga sessions reduced overall pain in this area.
Other research has shown prenatal yoga helps reduce a variety of pregnancy discomforts including varicose veins and ankle swelling.
Pregnancy-induced hypertension (high blood pressure) can be dangerous. In particular, it can lead to a complication called preeclampsia, which can be life-threatening for both mother and baby.
For pregnant women with high blood pressure, practising yoga has been shown to bring it down. Likewise, prenatal yoga has been found to reduce incidences of preeclampsia.
Some women develop gestational diabetes during pregnancy, which is when their body doesn’t produce enough insulin, the hormone that controls blood sugar.
For mothers with this condition, prenatal yoga, along with dietary changes, can help reduce blood sugar levels. Even regular yoga practice for seven to ten days has been shown to reduce blood sugar levels in patients with gestational diabetes.
Well-controlled blood sugar levels can help prevent further complications that can arise with gestational diabetes such as preterm birth, having a large baby, the baby developing jaundice, and stillbirth.
Almost half of pregnant women experience some level of sleep disturbance, and sleep quality gets worse in the third trimester. Women who sleep less during pregnancy have higher incidences of anxiety.
A key part of prenatal yoga is pranayama, or breathing exercises, which are believed to help improve quality of sleep.
After attending yoga classes, women have reported feelings of strength and confidence. Increased confidence and physical competence may enable women to remain calmer and help them take greater control during labour.
Yoga has been shown to be associated with reduced pain during labour and shorter duration of labour.
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While research shows prenatal yoga is beneficial and safe, there are only a limited number of studies investigating each benefit, and they have small sample sizes. It would be good to see larger studies on this topic.
That said, if you’re pregnant, prenatal yoga is a worthwhile investment you can make in your physical and mental health.
Looking for a class may be confusing as there are several types of yoga. The forms most suited to pregnancy are Hatha yoga, which is slower paced, or Iyengar yoga, which uses props for support.
You can find providers through a quick internet search or on directories such as Mumbler in the UK. You may have a choice between private and group classes. In a group class, you’ll have a chance to meet other pregnant mothers – an added bonus. A private session offers a tailored approach and individual attention from the instructor.
If you’re a beginner, attending virtual classes isn’t recommended as there will be no one to check your posture and help you avoid injuries.
If you’re enquiring about a group session, check if it’s a mixed class or only prenatal. It’s always better to choose a prenatal session. Also, ask for your instructor’s credentials in prenatal yoga. It’s a different certification from general yoga.
In your first class, the instructor will ask you about any injuries or pregnancy complications so they can give you modifications if needed. At any point, if you feel dizzy or in pain, stop and tell your instructor. They can support and guide you.
Most importantly, remember to enjoy the experience. The physical and psychological benefits will follow.
Anjali Raj is a certified prenatal and postnatal yoga instructor, but is not currently teaching.
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