The government of a country makes explicit or implicit threats to another: โif you cross this line, we will inflict harm upon you.โ The threat fails; the government crosses the designated line. Has deterrence failed?
Well, yes. Of course. By definition. It is, for example, unequivocally true that the United States did not deter Russia from invading Georgia in 2008, nor Ukraine in 2014, nor Ukraine (again) in 2022. Should you have any doubts about this, you can always go read a nearly four-thousand word Foreign Policy article on the subject.
I agree with its authors, Liam Collins and Frank Sobchak, that U.S. policymakers made a number of mistakes in handling Russia. Trumpโs rhetoric concerning NATO, Russia, and Ukraine did not exactly help make U.S. deterrence credible; then again, Trump wasnโt in office when Putin ordered the invasion. In retrospect, Obamaโs decision to withhold lethal aid from Ukraine was probably mistake, as not much seemed to happen when the Trump administration reversed course. But do we really think that providing more javelins in 2015 or 2016 would have deterred Putinโs invasion?
Apparently, yes. For Collins and Subchak, Washingtonโs failure to deter Russia means that U.S. policymakers should, ipso facto, have adopted a more hardline policy toward Russia. But much like the opposite claimโthat Georgia and Ukraine โproveโ that the U.S. should have adopted a more accommodating approach toward Russia, for example, by not expanding NATOโweโre looking at reasoning that is less โipso factoโ than โpost hoc ergo propter hoc.โ
That is, just because X preceded Y does not mean X caused Y. In the context of policy analysis we might add that just because Y is bad doesnโt mean Yโ would be better.
Sometimes, X isnโt even X. The fact that โdeterrence failedโ doesnโt imply that any attempt to accommodate Russia was a capitulation to Moscow. Sometimes the opposite is true.
For instance, Collins and Sobchak argue that Ukraine shows the folly of Obamaโs decision to cancel the โThird Siteโ anti-ballistic missile system, which involving placing radar in the Czech Republic and interceptors in Poland.
But the Obama administration replaced the โThird Siteโ with the European Phased Adaptive Approach (EPAA), which (as the Russians soon figured out) was easier for the United States to upgrade into the kind of system Moscow worried about. EPAA also entailed eventual deployments in Romania; Obama committed to stationing Patriots on Polish territory, as well โleft open the door to stationing new types of missile defense interceptors in Poland, an offer the Poles later agreed to accept.โ Moreover, at the Wales NATO summit Obama convinced NATO to affirm that missile defense was part of its collective mission.
Given all of this, it seems bizarre to claim, as Richard Minter did in 2014, that after โObama delayed deployment of missile defenses in Eastern Europe, Putin knew he had a free hand to reassemble the old Soviet Union piece-by-piece. Invading his neighbors would now be cost free.โ
Now, Collins and Sobchak donโt write anything quite so ridiculous. But they sometimes land come within striking distance.
Consider the very opening of the article, which discusses the U.S. response to the Russia-Georgia war:
Recall the aftermath of the 2008 invasion of Georgia. The Bush administration airlifted Georgian soldiers serving in Iraq back to Georgia to fight, provided a humanitarian aid package, and offered tersely worded denouncements and demarches. But it categorically rejected providing Georgia with serious military assistance in the form of anti-tank missiles and air defense missiles and even refrained from implementing punishing economic sanctions against Russia. The United Statesโ lack of resolve to punish Russia for its gross violation of international law was underscored when U.S. National Security Advisor Stephen Hadleyโs remark โAre we prepared to go to war with Russia over Georgia?โโmade during a National Security Council meeting after the war startedโwas later released to the media.
Keep in mind that theyโre talking about an effort to proved anti-tank missiles and air-defense systems during a war that lasted five daysโone in which Russia systematically annihilated the shiny systems that the United States and its partners had previously provided. If the argument is that the United States should have given Georgia anti-tank weapons or air-defense missiles after the conflict, then (while that might have been a good idea) itโs not clear to me how that wouldโve signaled U.S. resolve.
(Stephen Hadleyโs remark first appeared, if I remember correctly, in Ron Asmusโ book about the Georgia war. So the passive voice is definitely doing some work here. At the time, Hadley refused to comment on the specific quotation but did confirm that the Bush administration decided that the risks of using force outweighed the benefits. This โrevelationโ shouldnโt have surprised anyone, including Moscow, since, you know, the United States did not, in fact, use force. Whatโs particularly strange about this example is that itโs backwards. What surprised people was the extent of support within the administration for a more aggressive response. The headline of the Politico article that I linked to above wasnโt โThe United States didnโt risk war for Georgia.โ It was โU.S. pondered military use in Georgia.โ)
It is not obvious that the United States could have secured support for, say, more punishing sanctions. The Georgia War did not deter France from closing a deal to sell two Mistral-class helicopter carriers to Russia. Paris only cancelled that sale after the 2014 invasion of Ukraine, when Hollande (rather than Sarkozy) was president (interesting side note here).
But, as is typical for this genre, the article never seriously considers either the viability or the downside risks of alternative policies. This isโฆ problematicโฆ given that it is very difficult to assess what the world would like after fifteen years of concatenating changes produced by different policy decisions.
None of this means that we shouldnโt evaluate past policies and work through conterfactuals. Thatโs a crucial element of policy analysis, social-scientific inquiry, and policymaking, Collins and Sobchak, like too many others, donโt even do the bare minimumโin their case, despite writing a piece that runs as long as a short academic article in International Relations.
That failure is particularly pernicious when an obviously โbad outcomeโ makes it easy to gloss over. In fact, the last sentence of Collins and Sobchakโs article gives the game away:
The sad irony is that U.S. leaders, of both parties, chose to avoid deterrence for fear of escalating conflictโonly to find themselves continually escalating their support once conflict started. Time after time, the United States chose the option that was perceived as the least provocative but that instead led to the Russians becoming convinced that they were safe to carry out the most provocative action of all: a full-scale invasion of Ukraine.
The United States ignored the eternal wisdom of the Latin phraseย Siย vis pacem, para bellumย (โIf you want peace, prepare for warโ) and instead hoped that half-steps and compromise would suffice. While so far those decisions have prevented direct conflict between two nuclear-armed superpowers, they have caused Russia and the West to be locked in aย continuing series of escalationsย with an increasing danger of a miscalculation that could lead to exactly that scenario.
If you are interested in U.S. military basing policy, you have a lot of good work to read these days.
Some recent contributions to this literatureโMichael A. Allen et al.โs Beyond the Wire: U.S. Military Deployments and Host Country Public Opinion and Sebastian Schmidtโs earlier Armed Guests: Territorial Sovereignty and Foreign Military Basingโhave already been covered on The Duck. Claudia Junghyun Kimโs new book, Base Towns: Local Contestation of the U.S. Military in Korea and Japan, is just the latest entry in a burgeoning field.
Much of this work is motivated at least in part by an increasingly powerful China and debate about the extent to which overseas U.S. bases will allow it to project sufficient power to deter Chinese revisionism in the region. (This similarly motivates recent work that seeks to specify different types of revisionism.) The debate on the efficacy of โtripwireโ forces, for example, is oriented toward such concerns.
Given such interest in current U.S. basing arrangements, this literature tends to focus on basing as it has been practiced since the end of World War Two (or, instead, since the Spanish-American War of 1898). There is often good reason to do so, but as I will discuss in an MPSA presentation next week, I believe that there is more continuity in the history of U.S. military basing policy than is typically assumed.
Allen et al. offer a helpful starting point in thinking about this continuity. As they write, โThe US has a long history of using military bases to expand its influence. The process of westward expansion across the North American continent was accompanied by the construction of numerous military bases to aid in the projection of military power against Great Britain, Spain, France, Mexico, and Native Americans, as it sought to assert control over the increasingly vast territories settlers occupied.โ
Allen et al. ultimately distance this pre-1898 basing from post-1898 basing: โ[T]he US ultimately sought to extend direct control over these territories, making them a part of the country itself. โฆThe US began actively sending troops overseas on long-term deployments after the Spanish-American War.โ
If the United States used early military bases โto expand its influenceโ through the concentration of military power in strategic locations, however, is that so different from the ways bases are used today?
We might also reconsider the foreign/domestic distinction that often divides pre- and post-1898 basing. The United States did construct bases on territory that others claimed as their own earlier in its history; policy-makers simply did not recognize those claims. That is, to contrast early โdomesticโ basing with later โoverseasโ basing elides Indigenous claims to sovereignty that gave rise to violent contestation.
For example, the U.S. militaryโs eventual success in the Northwest Indian War depended largely on the construction of forts in the Northwest Territory. That land had been ceded by Britain to the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, but in the Ohio River Valley, groups such as the Shawnee and the Miami claimed the land as their own. The United States would go to war to enforce its claims by 1790.
After early battlefield defeats, the United States only managed to more effectively project power by creating a string of forts in the region. Those forts served varying rolesโsome served primarily to maintain supply lines while others served more clearly offensive or defensive purposesโbut they were all designed to enable the projection of power and the expansion of U.S. influence.
If Iโm right in arguing that there is more continuity here than is typically appreciated, research on modern U.S. military basing might more frequently turn to the pre-1898 period to consider how, for example, anti-base contestation and elite legitimization of basing arrangements manifested on the early American frontier. Similarities or differences in those earlier practices may help us to better understand practices of the more recent past and present.
If American leftists take seriously their commitment to self-rule and loathing of foreign aggression, they should shed their ambivalence about supporting Ukraine.
David Pierson at The New York Times:
While many in the world see the Chinese spy balloon as a sign of Beijingโs growing aggressiveness, China has sought to cast the controversy as a symptom of the United Statesโ irrevocable decline.
Why else would a great power be spooked by a flimsy inflatable craft, China has argued, if not for a raft of internal problems like an intensely divided society and intractable partisan strife driving President Biden to act tough on Beijing?
This gets at why โthe balloon incidentโ genuinely scares me; it suggests that the United States is doomed to the ratchet effects of domestic outbidding over who can be โtougherโ on China.
Thatโs a recipe for threat inflation, poor policy decisions, and (even more) toxic domestic politics.